Table of Contents
Manufacturing
The manufacturing of the foot began with a small farmer Teitu, in the village of Veii in southern Etruria. Teitu has been a farmer since he was a young kid as it was his fathers farm and he inherited it he passed away. Being on ones feet for more than ten hours a day caused Teitu to produce an incredibly uncomfortable bunions on the inside of his left foot. After a long day of work he discovered that the bunion on his left food was becoming too painful to work with. The next morning Teitu headed over to the local terra-cotta sculpturing workshop to ask them to make an offering that he can give to Achuvitr. Achuvitr is the goddess of healing and those would leave offerings of sculptures of what they needed healed (feet, hands, ears, eyes, etc.) by her statue in town before they went to the Healing Temples(Turfa, 2006). The sculpture and Teitu bargain for a price for the bunion and foot sculpture so he can get to work. Before he begins he heads over to the tradesman that collects and sells the clay from the clay mines and purchases a few pounds of pounds of wet clay since the workshop was running low, and this new order just came in. This sculpture is not the only sculpture in the town, but he is the most reasonable one that citizens who are not in the higher class can afford and go to typically for religious offerings. He also is better known for working well with terra-cotta clay, which happened to be the most frequently used clay for religious offerings(Sillar, 2000). This means that most of his work is done by hand and not as descriptive as the more expensive sculpture in town. So the sculpture begins work on the clay by modeling it off of his own foot. It takes him about two days to finish the modeling and details of the foot, and during that time he has to keep it wet so it doesn’t harden and crumble as he works(Guide to Terracotta, 2017).
When he is done with the sculpting of the foot the curing process for the clay must begin immediately so the clay does not harden or lose any of its strength . First it is emerged completely in water for about 6 hours or less depending on how large the sculpture was. Terra-cotta clay must be emerged in water to strengthen the clay and to give it weight before it is exposed to the heat in the curing process. Once the sculpture is done soaking it is filled with water and then placed into the the curing kiln, first at lower heat(Peña, 1989). Terra-cotta clay sculptures must be filled with water before being put into the kiln to control the heat in which the clay gets up to since it is fragile in extreme temperatures(Guide to Terracotta, 2017). That is why all terra-cotta clay sculptures are hallow. The clay sculpture is cured at a low heat with water in it until the clay has completely harden, there is no definite time frame for this curing process but for the size of the foot sculpture it doesn’t take longer than 24 hours(Guide to Terracotta, 2017). When the curing is finished, another worker within the small sculpting workshop is in charge of painting the foot. Since it is a gift to the gods, little detail is put into the painting job. An orange-yellow color paint is used to cover most of the surface of the foot, while either a green or brown paint is used to cover the sandal and to draw on the straps. When the paint was finished drying, the sculpture was ready for Teitu to pick up. Teitu returned to the sculpting workshop 3 days after he initially arrived there, and finish paying and picked-up the foot sculpture.
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The Terra-cotta foot sculpture came from the Etruscan territory from ancient Italy. It was manufactured between 400-300 BCE, and was most likely produced as a gift to the gods and goddess of the time. It can be traced back to the village of Veii in southern Etruria, since Veii was known for their productive terra-cotta workshops and had an abundance of healing temples as well. The sculpture lack in detail and weak points near the bottom of the sandal platform. This shows that it was handmade by a sculpture who was either not as good at the practice, or did not put in much effort since it was for a non-rich buyer. The sculpture can also been identified as made for a lower-class citizen because of the purpose for which it served. It was sculpted as a gift to the goddess of healing as indicated by the bunion on the inside of of the foot by the big toe. Bunions are most common in those who have been working for most of their lives, and are very active on their feet. In ancient Etruscan society this narrows it down to the middle and lower class citizens who had the more labor intensive jobs, comparing to the higher class that held positions in government and worked in less strenuous jobs(Renfrew, 2015). The ancient world believed that leaving offerings, to Achuvitr the goddess of healing, that symbolized what they needed healed she would aid in the healing process and the aliment would go away (Turfa, 2006). This offering was traditionally left at the foot of the goddess statue in the center of the town before going to the healing temples. The knowledge that the foot was an offering to the goddess of healing Achuvitr can be seen from the clean cut above the ankle of the sculpture. This clean cut indicates that it was not a piece that broke off of a larger sculpture, but was made specifically as a single foot.
The artifact was made out of terra-cotta clay, which was bought locally since there are many clay mines in Etruria. The clay had to by modeled while wet and then endures a two-step curing process(Peña, 1989). The first step involves soaking the sculpture in water for a few hours until it is almost doubled in weight by the amount of water it absorbed. After it is done soaking, the sculpture it filled with water and then put in the kiln at a very low temperature. The temperature needs to be lower for terra-cotta clay compared to other clay because it is very fragile at extreme temperatures, and is more prone to cracking if cured at a high temperature (Peña, 1989). The sculpture is completely hallow to allow it to be filled with water while it is in the kiln. This technique is unique to terra-cotta clay, which allows it to be identified as terra-cotta compared to other clay types. The identification of the type of clay allows us to understand the step-by-step process it goes through before it becomes a final product. The base that the foot sits on can first be thought of as a pedestal for the foot, but when compared to other foot sculpture offerings to the gods it can more clearly be identified as a sandal. Depending on the style that the sculpture prefers the sandal straps were either painted on or modeled out of clay, and in this case the straps were painted on(Renfrew, 2015). The foot was directly made and sold to someone who had a bunion and wanted to leave an offering for the gods to help in their healing process. Sculptures like this, that were made as offerings to the gods, were very popular during the ancient times to call attention to their aliment as they prayed (Turfa, 2006).
Use
Teitu returned to the sculpture shop eight days after his original visit to the sculpture to commission the votive foot. Teitu exchanges five didrachms with the sculpture of the foot. Since the foot was so expensive, it took Teitu nearly two full moons to save up for it by working extra hours to sell more crop and make a larger profit to be able to save up five didrachms. He then begins the two hours walk back to his farm, which lies on the outskirts of Veii. He is heading home to make sure that the house and farm are in order with his wife and sons so he can make the trip to the healing temple at the end of the week. He has been teaching his sons how to manage their farm since they were very young so he is not worried about leaving them to manage is for a small time. Teitu does not know how long he will spend at the healing temple, so he is leaving the affairs of the house and the responsibility of selling the crops at the marketplace to his wife Arria. At the end of the week Teitu begins his journey to the healing temple. The healing temple is in the polis of Veii near the southern end, which will take Teitu about four hours to travel to.
Once Teitu reached the healing temple, he immediately enters and is faced with a large shrine of Achuvitr. He pulls out the votive foot and places it at the base of the shrine and prays to Achuvitr(Turfa, 2006). He is asking her to recognize the bunion on his foot, and to help him heal it. He is also thanking her for all of the generosity and prosperity she has brought among the Etruscan people. He is then taken by the healers into the main room of the temple, and the votive is brought with them. The main room is a grand room with flats all along the center of the floor, and pillars separating the main floor from the outskirts. Behind the pillars in the outskirts of the room are large clay basins filled with water, some are large enough to hold a person, and others are small and standing on a pillar. The votive stays close to the shrine for the entire duration of Teitu’s stay in the temple(Wilde, 2009). In the main room of the temple Teitu lays still as the healers around him “enter his body” through etheric spiritual activities(Antiqua Medicina, 2007). After the etheric activities Teitu would bathe in Christos Water, which is powerful Etruscan healing water. Christos Water has the ability to heal anything or cure any disease (Wilde, 2009). After he bathes Teitu then prays until he lays to rest and hopes that he will meet Achuvitr in his dreams. This process of praying, etheric practice, bathing, praying, and then resting was repeated in the temple for six days until Teitu saw Achuvitr in his dreams. In his dream Achuvitr told him to soak his feet in a warm bath of wild chamomile, and that this process will reduce the pain and heal his foot. Teitu woke with complete exuberance that his votive offering and praying brought Achuvitr’s attention to him. He leaves the temple grateful and promises to return with more gifts to Achuvitr to express his gratitude. The votive foot is left in the temple by the shrine for some time since it is sacred because it was able to sway and grab the attention of Achuvitr4. After a few moons it is brought to a room underneath the temple that holds other votives that have been offered before in the temple.
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The intended use of the terra-cotta clay foot was to be offered as a gift to the goddess Achuvitr, who is the goddess of healing. By leaving the goddess the votive, a present or gift presented to the shrine of any ancient god, the giver is asking for her attention and help(Turfa, 2006). Those who left gifts to Achuvitr would be asking for her attention, before they undergo the rituals within the healing temple. When it came to Etruscan healing rituals, votives were sculpted to mimic the body part, including the injury or aliment, that the giver was looking to heal1. The giving of the votive is used to draw Achuvitr’s attention to what they specifically are looking to be healed. It is also a gift itself as an overall acknowledgement to Achuvitr and all the work she has done for her people(Turfa, 2016). When given it is placed at the base of the goddesses shrine and the Etruscan would pray before the shrine to call attention to the offering. One would not be able to enter the healing temples without some form of votive to Achuvitr (Turfa, 2016). A lack of a votive would reflect a disinterest towards the common religion and society, which was highly unacceptable during the times. Even those in lower classes would make, or purchase more inexpensive, votives to offer before enter a healing temple.
When compared to other Etruscan votives he terra-cotta clay foot shows similar specific details that it was given as a votive. The shape and size of the foot is very similar to other votive foots. As well as the lack of design detail which indicates that it was most likely not sculpted for a larger sculpture. The slightly raise, or bump, right on the side of the large toe does resemble a bunion shape, which also gives light to the sculpture being a votive. The main reason that the foot was most likely not apart of a larger sculpture has to do with the shape of the opening above the ankle. The cut above the ankle is very smooth with rounded edges and no cracks going through it. This shows that it is highly unlikely to have been a broken off foot from a sculpture. If it was broken off the break site would not be as neat and smooth, and there is a higher possibility that there would be cracks going through the ankle(Recke, 2013).
A votive has one simple purpose in the ancient world, which was to be left at the base of a god or goddess shrine as an offering. It may only have one physical purpose but votives hold a large spiritual purpose within the Etruscan world. For many Etruscans it is the connection between them and their gods and goddess since it is a religious offering(Wilde, 2009). It is not known if the foot votive was made specifically for the person, or if the person bought it in a shop. In my narrative I decided to have it be made for the specific person because then it gives the object a richer background, but it was most likely bought in a shop for the specific use. There is little documentation on the purchasing of votives that it is safe to assume that they were both purchased in shop and in cases specifically commissioned to be made. There is also scarce documentation on where the votive was placed after it was offered. It is unknown if the people at the temples kept the votives in a storage of some sorts or traded them. Since they are religious objects and a gift it is most probable that the votives were put into storage in the temples. The votive foot was found in Veii where it was produced in Etruria, so it was stored away either in the healing temple itself or somewhere else in Veii.
Re-use
Time is verging onto the beginning of 2nd Century BCE, in the city of Veii. It has been many years since Teitu first visited the healing temple. His votive foot has long been in storage in a large chamber underneath the temple. All of the votives are moved to the storage chambers after a certain amount of time in the main temple.
Veii is not so far from the main city of Roma, which earlier that evening drove out two thieves. The thieves were causing havoc around Roma, from looting temples, to churches, to merchants, and even homes. The Vigiles soon caught up to them and chased the two young men out of the city. Unfortunately they did not catch the thieves, but were just able to drive them out of Roma, and restore some peace back within the city(Vigiles, 2017). The two thieves, Caius and Marius, have been thieving since they were children. They both grew up in the lowest class of the Roma societal structure, and instead of working for the rich family that enslaved the two boys they decided to loot the family and run(Cowell, 1961). This began their new lives as thieves among Roma, until they were ran out. Caius and Marius decided to head towards Veii, since it is the closest city that has the best opportunities for them to continue their work. They entered the city close to dusk and began to explore and find their next target. They then ran into the healing temple on the edge of the city. The temple doors are never locked because it is suppose to always be open for those who are in need. Since the temple is always accessible there is always a threat of looters or violent patrons. This was a perfect situation for Caius and Marius to be able to raid the temple.
When the moon was the highest in the night sky the two boys decided to make their move and quietly entered the temple. Since it was late at night all of the patrons and healers in the temple were asleep so it was easy for the thieves to make their way inside. They then proceeded to the underground level, since that is where most temple store their votives. Caius and Marius entered the storage room where Teitu’s and hundreds of other votives were kept. They took everything that was made of bronze and other metals. They did not take many of the clay votives because they would not make as much money off of them. Just the smaller/lighter clay ones that were easier to carry. A healer upstairs heard the ruckus and quickly ran downstairs catching the two in the act. The boys quickly pushed passed her and ran up and out of the temple, and headed towards the center of town to sell what they stole. After being awoken and hearing about the news head healer, Larth, decided that they need to start locking up the votives. Since the temple does not have a locked room, most of the votives were buried while some were redistributed. The votives that were redistributed, including Teitu’s foot, were ones that had a spiritual connection to Achuvitr. Teitu’s foot was given to a young girl, Velia, who foot was crushed during a mining accident. Velia could only afford to offer a small foot pendant, so she was given the foot as extra reassurance that Achuvitr could help her. For her this was the most grateful action that the temple could offer. The new votive was a sign of hope for Velia that should one day could be cured and use her foot again.
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Grave and temple robbing was a common practice among the thieves in the ancient world. Valuable and high-priced metals would be placed in graves to pass into the afterlife with the person who passed. Also an array of different valued objects were given as gifts or votives to the gods and goddess, and then kept by the temples that received them. This supplied a large concentrated source of valuable materials for thieves to steal. Thieving was a common practice for those in the lower classes, or just for being that sought the excitement of breaking the law. Metals and small valuables were taken over heavy clay and cloths. The reason for this is because small valuables, such as earrings, bracelets, necklaces, pins, etc, can easily be sold for good money depending on what they are made from5. Statues and other objects made from different metals were typically sold or were melted down to be made into new objects(Grünewald, 2004). Black market trading and selling occurred more frequently at night to avoid the Vigiles (Vigiles, 2017)(Cowell, 1961). It also became common law that if black market deals were to be made, it would be done after dusk(Cowell, 1961).
Small clay pendents and objects were sold back into the market economy, and were typically bought again as votives. If the votive foot was stolen, that would be the more common path it would take. The reason the votive foot would not have been stolen is because it was too heavy and not valuable for its size. A bronze statue of the same size and weight would be chosen over the foot, because it has more value and can be sold in multiple markets. If the votives were sold back into the same city market that the temple was, there was a large chance that it would end back in the same temple it was stolen from.
Most votives never have another use except for its first use when given to the god or goddess. Spiritual culture in ancient Roma and Etruria found it disrespectful, and unlucky to take away a gift to the gods. Since is was taboo to use a votive more than once, most were never used again between their initial offering and their burial. Although votives can be displayed in the temple to help draw Achuvitr’s attention to those in need. Votives, that once were successful for a past patient in the temple, could also be “loaned” to a current patient with a similar aliment to help strengthen their offering and connection to Achuvitr so she will visit them(Fögen, 2009). This was a common way for a votive to be used around the temple before it entered storage or was buried(Fögen, 2009). Votives were more frequently set on display instead of loaned to a patient, but it was not uncommon for the latter use to occur. When a votive is loaned to another patient is has a similar but different meaning to it. It still carries a meaning of hope and health to each person that uses it, but the specifics within the hope and prayers towards it changes with each reuse. Teitu prayed that the votive would help his bunion to be healed so he can work again. While Velia prays for it to heal or foot so that one day she can use her foot again.
Deposition
The sun began to set on a warm summer night in the polis of Veii. Since dusk is upon the town everything begins to slow down, and workers, merchants, and slaves begin to settle into the night. Silence takes over the town, except for down at the cities temple of healing. Larth, the temples head healer, and other healers began to dig behind the temple. They were digging a hole to deposit some of the votives in because they do not have enough storage for them all. This is typical in Etruscan, and other ancient, cultures where religious buildings bury the excess votives. Lark and his co-workers began digging at night because the summer sun is too intense for them to dig during the day. The hole takes a few hours to dig to be big enough to hold about 200 votives(Simon, 2006). Once Larth and the healers complete the hole, they slowly start putting all of the objects in. They are very careful during this to make sure that there is limited damage during this process. It takes about an hour to place all of the votives into the ground, including Teitu’s foot votive. Larth then stands in front of the pit and him and all of the healers pray for the votives to make a safe transition into the afterlife(Simon, 2006). They then begin to cover the site up with dirt until it is once again at its natural level and return to the temple. The entire process of the burial takes a decent amount of time, as is achieved faster in some temples by using slaves to dig the burial pit. Votives are buried when storage become to full for any more offerings, so this process occurs every century depending on the amount of visitors the temple receives.
Teitu’s votive foot was placed in the ground a few centuries after its was first offered to Achuvitr. This is the last instance that the foot was above the ground, until it was found almost two thousand years later. Temple graves are more often left untouched since many of the votives have no value outside of the building. Many of the bronze and metal votives are stolen before they make it to the burial. This leaves many votive pits, such as the one Teitu’s foot is in, with mainly clay offerings.
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Votive burials and depositions were a rather simple practice in Etruscan culture. Most of them consist of large pits which hold hundreds of votive objects. They were typically close to the temple to make the transition from storage to deposition quick and easy. Although for temples without much land around it would have to travel to open land to bury the votives(Simon, 2006). Many votive burial rituals were lost throughout the years as the process became more frequent (Crawford, 2004). With more votives to bury healers would quickly get slaves to dig a pit, and would often not be as careful with the offerings. In the narrative above, I depicted a simple but meaningful burial for the small healing temple in Veii. This was to show that although many rituals were lost through the times, many healers and temples still cared for the objects and thought to give them a peaceful passage to the next life(Cartwright, 2017).
The exact deposition of the Etruscan clay foot is unknown since there is no documentation of its burial. Unless they were stolen, or the temple was abandoned before their burial, most votives are deposited in pits alongside other votives(Simon, 2006). This helps to infer that the Etruscan foot was also deposited in a similar fashion. Many of the more fragile votives are broken during the deposition process or during its time buried. The settling of the earth and the layers in the ground slowly shift and compact the soil. Over time this can chip or crack some of the buried votives. Since the clay foot is thick and a mostly solid object it is not surprising that there is little damage to it. The soil did rub and begin to erode the outside of the foot, but besides that its transition and time in the ground was very smooth(Joyce, 2012).
The temples deposition process did often group similar votives together in the pit. Many pits were found just containing one specific body part(Simon, 2006). This division process was more uncommon through Etruscan votive depositions, but was not uncommon. The practice was more common with head temple healers who took votive burials very serious(Cartwright, 2017). Etruscan religion had times where funeral and burial rituals were very religious and popular (Bell, 2016). This wave of popularity did tend to be more specific with human burials compared to votive burials, because they were afraid that if they mistreated the dead, both the dead and themselves would not gain safe passage to the after-life(Bell, 2016). Lavish votive burials were practiced throughout some temples, both healing and religious(Simon, 2006). These burials consisted of a thought out burial with prayers for the objects that connected to the gods. As well as careful arrangement and placement of the votives into the pit. Unlike human burials, votive burial sites were not decorated and the only things in the pits were the offerings(Cartwright, 2017). This is because it was a waste of resources to decorate the outside of the site, and they did not want to publicize the site. If the site was publicized there is a large chance that it will be looted and many of the offerings will be stolen.
Discover/Acquisition
The votive foot was placed in the mass grave in the early 1st century AD, and did not see daylight again until the 19th century. The city of Veii is now known as Isola Farnese, after Cardinal Alessandro Farnese who bought the village from the Orsini family in 1567. Around this time excavations throughout the town began to increase. Antiquities were all the rage and there was plenty of them in Isola Farnese to go around. Teitu’s foot, and the rest of the temples votives, was found in the early 1900’s during an excavation ran by some local merchants and antiquities dealers(Bates, 1920). The foot was found and taken back to a workshop with most of the other clay votives, where assembly workers cleaned all of the votives that were found. First all of the dirt was brushed off of Teitu’s foot, and then it was scrubbed with water until there was minimal dirt still on it4. It was then left on a table to dry until all of the other votives were finished being cleaned and dried. They were then transported into center town to be stored and sold in the merchants shop. Luigi Fiorentini, the owner of the shop, was one of the main merchant dealers in charge of the excavation(Van Buren, 1949). Along with about a third of the found votives, Teitu’s foot is now in Luigi’s possession. Luigi’s merchant shop was known for selling ancient Etruscan art, household items, and votives. Teitu’s foot was put on display in his shop in the spring of 1902. It would stay on display, until its purchase in the until autumn of 1902(Bonfante, 2015).
Albert William Van Buren was an archeology student studying at the American School of Classic Studies in Rome in the early 1900’s. During the time he traveled around the Mediterranean with other student and professors researching and purchasing antiquities. In the autumn of 1902 he was visiting the city of Isola Farnese. He stopped at all of the antiquity merchant shops, including Luigi’s. This is where he found Teitu’s votive foot on display. Since Van Buren was just a student he had little money to support his antiquities collection. So he was always looking for pieces that caught his eye and was affordable for him. This was the case for Teitu’s votive. The lone foot stood out to Van Buren, and he asked Luigi how much the votive cost. Luigi offered to sell it to him for cheaper than he was asking for, since no one seemed to be interested in it since its been on display. Van Buren brought Teitu’s foot back to school with him and added it to his small collection of antiquities(Van Buren, 1949)(Bonfante, 2015).
Van Buren’s collection of antiquities continued to grow as he studied and worked in Rome. Through his travels from Rome to the United States and back again his collection stayed with him and began to grow. Until 1908, when he left some of his collection, including Teitu’s foot, to Phelps Hall at Yale before returning to Europe(Van Buren, 1949)(Bonfante, 2015). In May of 1925 Yale sold all of the antiquities Van Buren left him to F. Warren Wright for 100 dollars(Van Buren, 1949)(Bonfante, 2015)(Smtih College Archives, 2017). Wright brought them to Smith College and they have been in the College’s possession ever since.
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The clay votive foot has little to no documentation until it was purchased by Van Buren in 19021. The excavation of the foot, and the mass grave it was found in, was based off of other excavation that occurred in Isola Farnese, which used to be the ancient city of Veii, had many excavation sites during the later 1800s to the early 1900s(Bates, 1920). This is because Veii was known for its large clay production and sculpting, so there were many sites around the city with large clay sculpture deposits(Bates, 1920). Excavation sites were found all over Isola Farnese, although the biggest and most well known was by the Temple of Apollo(Boitani, 2013). Tombs were opened and graves were dug up during this time, and the terracotta clay votive foot was found during this period(Bates, 1920).
The foot landed in the hands of Luigi Fiorentini who was a local merchant in Isola Farnese. Van Buren then purchased it from Fiorentini in the autumn of 1902, according to his handwritten logs(Van Buren, 1949)(Bonfante, 2015). It was common practice at the times for antiquities acquired from the excavations to be sold by merchants, since many of the excavations were not performed by archeologists, or were performed by archeologist and merchants combined(Boitani, 2013). This was how many smaller antiquities were discovered and acquired all over the Mediterranean.
Van Buren collected many antiquities during his time. All of the antiquities that he purchased or “picked-up” were, from his perspective, unique. He did not collect these items to own a large collection, but for educational purposes and personal interest. This means that the votive foot stood out to Van Buren and there was more motive than to just build his collection when he purchased it. After the foot was purchased by Van Buren it stayed with him in Rome, until he travelled back to Yale in 1906. Instead of traveling back and forth from Europe with his antiquities collection, Van Buren left them at Yale. This is how the votive foot became apart of the collection it is in now. Phelps Hall was in possession of the collection, and the school did not find much use for it which is why he sold it to Wright at Smith College(Bonfante, 2015)(Smith College Archives, 2017). Wright acquired the antiquities collection because he believed that they would serve a strong educational purpose within the schools classics department. He even wrote a letter to Van Buren and his colleagues thanking him for the antiquities(Bonfante, 2015). Compared to other antiquities that were discovered the votive foot has not traveled much since its excavation. Through documentation the foot has only been in Veii/Isola Farnese, Rome, Connecticut, and Massachusetts even though it has been around for almost 2500 years.
Complete Bibliography:
Manufacturing:
1. Turfa, J. M. “Votive Offerings in Etruscan Religion,” in The Religion of the Etruscans. Eds. De Grummond, N. T. and E. Simon, 2006.
2. ”The Etruscan World: Technology & Commerce.” The Etruscan World: Technology & Commerce. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Feb. 2017.
3. Sillar, B., and M. S. Tite. “THE CHALLENGE OF ‘TECHNOLOGICAL CHOICES’FOR MATERIALS SCIENCE APPROACHES IN ARCHAEOLOGY*.” Archaeometry 42.1 (2000): n. pag. Web.
4. Renfrew, Colin, and Paul G. Bahn. “Chapter 7: How Were Artifacts Made, Used, and Distributed? Technology, Trade, and Exchange.” Archaeology Essentials: Theories, Methods, Practice. Vol. 2nd. London: Thames & Hudson, 2015. N. pag. Web.
5. Peña, J. Theodore. ETRUSCAN CERAMIC TECHNOLOGY: EVIDENCE FROM A SECOND CENTURY B.C. CONTEXT AT CETAMURA [paper Presented at the Annual Meetings of the A.I.A., 12/28/89] (n.d.): n. pag. University of California, Berkeley. The University at Albany, S.U.N.Y. Web.
6. Coxill, David. “MINES IN STAFFORDSHIRE: Geology & Extraction History of the Non-Aggregate Mineral Resources of Staffordshire.” MINES IN STAFFORDSHIRE. N.p., 1998. Web. 13 Feb. 2017.
7. Giardino, Claudio. “Villanovan and Etruscan Mining and Metallurgy.” The Etruscan World (2013): n. pag. Academia. Web.
8. “Retailers Guide to Terracotta.” Guide to Terracotta. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Feb. 2017.
Use:
1. Turfa, J. M. “Votive Offerings in Etruscan Religion,” in The Religion of the Etruscans. Eds. De Grummond, N. T. and E. Simon, 2006.
2. ”The Etruscan World: Technology & Commerce.” The Etruscan World: Technology & Commerce. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Feb. 2017.
3. “Healer Cults and Sanctuaries.” Antiqua Medicina: From Homer to Vesalius. Rector and Visitors of the University of Virginia, 2007. Web. 24 Feb. 2017.
4. Turfa, J. M. “Etruscan Votives and Health?” The Votives Project. N.p., 11 Mar. 2016. Web. 27 Feb. 2017.
5. Recke, Matthias, 2013. “Science as art: Etruscan anatomical votives,” in The Etruscan World (ed. J.M. Turfa) London: Routledge, pp. 1068-1085.
6. “Etruria.” Ancient Coins of Etruria. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Feb. 2017.
7. Wilde, Stuart. “Etruscan Healing Temples.” Stuart Wilde. N.p., 5 Mar. 2009. Web. 25 Feb. 2017.
Re-use:
1. Alchin, Linda. “Roman Punishment.” Roman Punishment. Siteseen, n.d. Web. 27 Mar. 2017.
2. “The Dangerous Streets of Ancient Rome.” BBC History Apr. 2012: n. pag. History Extra. Immediate Media Company, 13 June 2016. Web. 25 Mar. 2017.
3. “Vigiles.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 23 Mar. 2017. Web. 27 Mar. 2017.
4. Cowell, F. R. Everyday Life in Ancient Rome. London: Batsford, 1961. Print.
5. Grünewald, Thomas. Bandits in the Roman Empire: Myth and Reality. London ; New York, NY: Routledge, 2004. Historical Underbelly / WordPress. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
6. Fögen, Thorsten, and Mireille M. Lee. Bodies and Boundaries in Graeco-Roman Antiquity. Berlin: Walter De Gruyter, 2009. Print.
Deposition:
1. Simon, Erika, and De Grummond Nancy Thomson. The Religion of the Etruscans. Austin: U of Texas, 2006. Google Books. Web.
2. Crawford, Sally. “Votive Deposition, Religion and the Anglo-Saxon Furnished Burial Ritual.” World Archaeology 36.1 (2004): 87-102. JSTOR. Web.
3. Bell, Sinclair, and Alexandra Ann Carpino. A Companion to the Etruscans. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley/Blackwell, 2016. Academia. Web.
4. Joyce, Rosemary A., and Joshua Pollard. “Archaeological Assemblages and Practices of Deposition.” Oxford Handbooks Online (2012): Web.
5. Cartwright, Mark. “Etruscan Religion.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. N.p., 30 Jan. 2017. Web. 12 Apr. 2017.
Discovery/Acquisition:
1. Van Buren, Albert William. A Selection from the Antiquities at the American Academy in Rome. Vol. 19. New Haven: American Academy in Rome, 1949. JSTOR. Web.
2. Bonfante, Larissa, Helen Nagy, and Jacquelyn Collins-Clinton. The Collection of Antiquities of the American Academy in Rome. Vol. XI. Ann Arbor, MI: Published for the American Academy in Rome by U of Michigan, 2015. Google Books. Web.
3. Smith College Archives. “F. Warren Wright Papers, 1890-1966.” Five College Archives and Manuscript Collections. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Apr. 2017.
4. Hall, Megan. “Washing Artifacts.” Aztalan Fieldschool. N.p., 02 July 2013. Web. 26 Apr. 2017.
5. Boitani, Francesca. “Apollo de Veio” . National Etruscan Museum of Villa Giulia. N.p. 25 Feb. 2013.
6. Bates, William Nickerson, ed. American Journal of Archeology. Vol. XXIV. Concord, NH: Rumford, 1920. Second. Google Books. University of California, Davis. Web. 24 Apr. 2017.
7. Stiebing, William H. Uncovering the Past: A History of Archaeology. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1995. Questia. Web. 26 Apr. 2017.